Managing Uneven Heating and Cooling across Rooms

Importance of Proper Refrigerant Levels

Managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms is a common challenge faced by many homeowners. The root of this problem often lies in the diverse causes of temperature variations from room to room. Technicians need specific training to work on HVAC systems in manufactured housing mobile home hvac replacement energy conservation. Understanding these causes is essential for creating a comfortable living environment and ensuring energy efficiency.


One of the primary reasons for temperature disparities between rooms is poor insulation. Rooms that are inadequately insulated tend to lose heat more quickly in the winter and gain heat more rapidly in the summer. This can be particularly noticeable in older homes where insulation standards were not as stringent as they are today. Insufficient insulation around windows, doors, or within walls allows outdoor temperatures to influence indoor conditions significantly.


Another common cause is the orientation of rooms and the position of windows. Rooms facing south may receive more sunlight during the day, leading to higher temperatures, while north-facing rooms might remain cooler due to less direct sunlight exposure. Similarly, large windows without proper shading can result in significant solar heat gain, causing one part of the house to be much warmer than others.


The design and layout of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems also play a crucial role in temperature differences across rooms. If ducts are improperly sized or if there are leaks within ductwork, airflow can be restricted or unevenly distributed throughout the home. This results in some areas receiving more heated or cooled air than others. Additionally, having only one thermostat controlling multiple zones can lead to imbalances since it may not accurately reflect conditions throughout all areas being serviced.


Furthermore, external factors such as weather changes also contribute to indoor temperature variations. For instance, wind patterns can affect how quickly a room cools down or heats up based on its exposure level. Similarly, humidity levels impact how warm or cold a space feels; high humidity makes it feel warmer than it actually is because moisture retains heat.


Lastly, internal factors such as appliance use and occupancy levels can affect temperatures within specific rooms. Kitchens with active ovens or stoves naturally become warmer due to heat generated from cooking appliances. Likewise, crowded spaces generate additional body heat which may raise temperatures locally compared to unoccupied areas.


Addressing these common causes requires a multifaceted approach tailored specifically for each home's unique characteristics. Solutions might include improving insulation quality, installing window treatments like blinds or shades for better light control, balancing HVAC systems by adjusting dampers appropriately according to usage patterns across different zones within your property even considering zoning systems where feasible among other personalized interventions designed specifically around individual needs/preferences related towards achieving optimal comfort consistently year-round regardless what season brings forth next upon horizon ahead!

Managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms in mobile homes is a challenge that many residents face. Mobile homes, by their very design, often come with unique structural characteristics that can exacerbate temperature discrepancies between different areas. This is where the importance of a well-functioning HVAC system becomes paramount.


A reliable HVAC system is essential for maintaining a comfortable living environment in any home, but its significance is even greater in mobile residences. These homes typically have less thermal mass compared to traditional houses, meaning they can heat up or cool down more quickly. As such, any inefficiencies in the HVAC system can lead to pronounced discomfort among occupants, impacting their quality of life.


One primary reason for uneven temperature distribution in mobile homes is poor air circulation. A well-designed HVAC system addresses this issue by ensuring that air flows evenly throughout the entire space. This involves not only having an appropriate-sized unit but also properly placed vents and returns that facilitate optimal airflow. Without this balance, some rooms may remain chilly while others become excessively warm.


Moreover, insulation plays a crucial role in regulating indoor temperatures. Mobile homes often have thinner walls and roofs than conventional houses, which can lead to faster heat loss or gain. A competent HVAC system can compensate for these insulation shortcomings by efficiently managing energy output and maintaining consistent temperatures throughout all rooms.


Energy efficiency is another critical factor when considering the importance of an effective HVAC system in mobile homes. Given that heating and cooling are major energy consumers, especially during extreme weather conditions, an efficient system helps reduce utility bills significantly. It achieves this by minimizing energy wastage through precise control mechanisms and advanced technologies such as programmable thermostats.


Furthermore, regular maintenance of the HVAC system cannot be overlooked. Periodic inspections ensure that all components function optimally and help identify potential issues before they become major problems. Clean filters, sealed ducts, and calibrated thermostats are small steps that collectively contribute to achieving even heating and cooling across rooms.


In conclusion, the importance of a well-functioning HVAC system in managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms in mobile homes cannot be overstated. Such systems not only enhance comfort but also promote energy efficiency and cost savings. By addressing air circulation issues, compensating for inadequate insulation, optimizing energy use, and undergoing regular maintenance checks, residents can enjoy a more balanced indoor climate regardless of external weather conditions. Investing in a good-quality HVAC solution ultimately ensures that every corner of a mobile home remains as welcoming as possible year-round.

Addressing Frequent HVAC Problems Faced by Mobile Home Owners

Owning a mobile home comes with its own set of unique challenges, particularly when it comes to maintaining essential systems like heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).. Unlike traditional homes, mobile homes often have distinct structural and mechanical characteristics that can lead to frequent HVAC issues.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

Eco Friendly HVAC Solutions for Sustainable Mobile Living

As the world continues to grapple with the pressing challenges of climate change and environmental degradation, the demand for eco-friendly solutions across various sectors is becoming increasingly urgent.. One area that is rapidly evolving in response to this demand is sustainable HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems for mobile living.

Posted by on 2024-12-27

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

Managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms in a home or building is a common challenge that requires careful consideration of airflow and temperature distribution. Achieving a comfortable climate throughout the entire space involves implementing strategies that ensure both efficiency and uniformity.


One of the primary steps in balancing airflow is to understand the layout of your HVAC system. Many systems are designed to deliver air from a central point, which can lead to variations in temperature depending on each room's proximity to this source. To address this, start by examining the ductwork for any signs of leaks or blockages that may be impeding airflow. Sealing leaks with mastic sealant or aluminum tape can significantly improve efficiency by directing more air into the designated areas.


Another effective strategy is zoning, which involves dividing your home into different zones that can be heated or cooled independently. This approach allows you to tailor the temperature settings for each area based on its specific needs and usage patterns. Installing programmable thermostats for each zone provides greater control over temperature regulation, helping maintain comfort while potentially reducing energy costs.


Ceiling fans also play a crucial role in managing uneven heating and cooling. In summer, they create a wind-chill effect that makes occupants feel cooler without altering the thermostat setting. During winter, reversing the fan direction helps redistribute warm air trapped near the ceiling back down into living spaces, promoting even heat distribution.


Additionally, consider using air deflectors on vents to direct airflow towards areas that need it most. These simple devices can help guide conditioned air into specific zones, mitigating hot or cold spots within rooms.


Insulation is another critical factor in maintaining consistent temperatures throughout a building. Poorly insulated walls or windows allow external temperatures to influence indoor conditions significantly more than well-insulated counterparts do. Upgrading insulation materials in attics, basements, and around windows ensures that heated or cooled air remains where it's needed rather than escaping outside.


Finally, regular maintenance of heating and cooling systems cannot be overlooked when striving for balanced airflow and temperature distribution. Routine checks by qualified technicians ensure that all components function optimally and identify potential issues before they become major problems.


In conclusion, managing uneven heating and cooling requires an integrated approach combining ductwork assessment, zoning systems, strategic use of ceiling fans, installation of air deflectors, enhanced insulation efforts, and diligent HVAC maintenance. By employing these strategies collectively rather than individually addressing symptoms as they arise-a harmonious indoor climate becomes achievable year-round irrespective of external weather conditions.

Signs and Symptoms of Low Refrigerant

Impact of Low Refrigerant on HVAC System Performance

Upgrading or modifying existing HVAC systems for better efficiency is an essential strategy for managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms. Uneven temperature distribution in a home or building can lead to discomfort, increased energy costs, and unnecessary strain on the HVAC system. By addressing these issues through strategic upgrades and modifications, it is possible to not only enhance comfort but also improve the overall efficiency of the system.


One of the primary reasons for uneven heating and cooling is poor airflow distribution. This can result from outdated ductwork, improper insulation, or a lack of zoning within the HVAC system. Upgrading ductwork can significantly improve airflow by ensuring that air travels efficiently throughout the building. Sealing leaks in ducts prevents conditioned air from escaping before reaching its intended destination, thereby promoting more even temperatures.


Implementing a zoning system is another effective modification that addresses uneven heating and cooling. Zoning allows different areas or rooms to be heated or cooled independently based on their specific needs, rather than relying on a single thermostat setting for the entire building. This approach not only enhances comfort by catering to individual preferences but also reduces energy waste by avoiding over-conditioning unoccupied spaces.


Moreover, updating thermostats to smart models can greatly contribute to better efficiency. Smart thermostats allow more precise control over temperature settings and provide insights into energy usage patterns. These devices can learn occupants' schedules and adjust settings automatically, ensuring optimal conditions while minimizing energy consumption.


Insulation plays a crucial role in maintaining consistent temperatures as well. Insufficient insulation leads to heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer, exacerbating temperature disparities between rooms. Adding or upgrading insulation helps maintain desired temperatures longer and reduces the burden on HVAC systems.


In addition to these measures, regular maintenance should not be overlooked when aiming for improved efficiency. Routine inspection and servicing of HVAC components like filters, coils, and fans ensure that they operate at peak performance levels. Clean filters promote better airflow while reducing strain on the system.


Ultimately, upgrading or modifying existing HVAC systems involves a combination of targeted interventions designed to enhance both performance and comfort. By addressing issues such as airflow distribution, zoning capabilities, thermostat technology, insulation quality, and maintenance practices, it becomes possible to create an environment where heating and cooling are evenly distributed across all rooms.


These improvements not only lead to immediate benefits like increased comfort but also have long-term advantages including reduced energy bills and extended equipment lifespan-all contributing factors toward achieving greater overall efficiency within any residential or commercial space with existing HVAC systems in place.

Steps for Diagnosing Low Refrigerant Issues

Managing uneven heating and cooling across different rooms in a home can be a frustrating challenge for many homeowners. This issue not only affects comfort but can also lead to increased energy bills as systems work overtime to compensate for temperature discrepancies. Fortunately, there are cost-effective solutions and DIY tips that can help balance the temperature throughout your living space, ensuring each room is comfortable and your energy usage remains efficient.


One of the simplest ways to address uneven heating and cooling is by adjusting your home's air vents. Often, rooms that are too hot or too cold have vents that are either partially closed or completely blocked by furniture or curtains. By carefully inspecting and adjusting these vents, you can improve airflow distribution in your home. If a room is particularly cold, try opening the vent more fully; if it's too warm, consider closing it slightly to redirect airflow elsewhere.


Another affordable solution is the use of ceiling fans. While typically associated with cooling, ceiling fans can also aid in heating when used correctly. In the winter months, set your fan to rotate clockwise at a low speed; this will push warm air that naturally rises back down into the living space. Conversely, during summer, set the fan to rotate counterclockwise to create a cooling breeze.


Investing in door draft stoppers is another budget-friendly option for managing uneven temperatures between rooms. These simple items prevent drafts from coming through gaps under doors, which helps maintain consistent temperatures within individual rooms without relying solely on your HVAC system.


For those who enjoy DIY projects, adding insulation to key areas of your home can make a significant difference in maintaining even temperatures. Insulating attics, basements, and walls reduces heat loss in winter and keeps cool air inside during summer months. While this project may require some initial investment of time and money, it pays off through improved comfort and lower utility bills over time.


Programmable thermostats provide another layer of control over home temperature distribution. By programming different zones throughout your house according to their specific heating and cooling needs, you ensure optimal comfort while enhancing energy efficiency. Some advanced models even offer smart features that learn your preferences over time or allow adjustments via smartphone apps.


Finally, sealing leaks around windows and doors with weatherstripping or caulk is an easy DIY task that prevents unwanted air exchange between indoors and outdoors-further contributing towards balanced climate control within each room.


In conclusion, addressing uneven heating and cooling doesn't always require expensive professional interventions; many practical strategies exist which homeowners themselves can implement effectively at minimal cost! From tweaking vent settings through strategic use of fans coupled with enhanced insulation efforts-to employing programmable thermostats alongside sealing leaks-the potential improvements achievable using these methods are substantial: resulting ultimately not just better indoor environments but tangible reductions overall household expenditure on utilities too!

Preventive Measures and Maintenance Tips

Managing uneven heating and cooling across rooms is a common challenge in many households and commercial spaces. This issue not only affects comfort but can also lead to increased energy costs and strain on HVAC systems. To address this, regular maintenance practices play a crucial role in ensuring even temperature distribution throughout a building.


One of the most effective ways to prevent uneven heating and cooling is by routinely checking and replacing air filters. Clogged or dirty filters restrict airflow, causing certain areas to overheat or remain cold. By replacing filters every one to three months, you can ensure that the HVAC system operates efficiently, distributing air evenly across all rooms.


Another important practice is inspecting ductwork for leaks or obstructions. Ducts are responsible for carrying conditioned air from the HVAC system to different parts of a building. If there are leaks or blockages, some rooms may not receive adequate airflow, leading to temperature disparities. Sealing leaks with duct tape or mastic sealant and clearing any obstructions can significantly improve air distribution.


Regularly cleaning vents and registers is also essential in managing room temperatures effectively. Dust and debris can accumulate over time, blocking airflow through vents. By vacuuming these components periodically, you ensure that air can flow freely into each room, aiding in consistent heating and cooling.


Calibrating thermostats is another often overlooked maintenance task that can help prevent uneven temperatures. A poorly calibrated thermostat may not accurately reflect the actual temperature of a room, leading to improper adjustments by the HVAC system. Ensuring that thermostats are correctly calibrated allows them to maintain desired temperatures more accurately.


Additionally, it's important to examine insulation levels in your home or building regularly. Inadequate insulation can allow heat transfer between inside and outside environments, making it difficult for an HVAC system to maintain consistent indoor temperatures. Upgrading insulation where necessary helps retain heat during winter months and keep interiors cool during summer.


Finally, professional inspection of your HVAC system at least once a year ensures all components are functioning properly. Technicians can identify issues such as faulty fans or compressors that might contribute to uneven heating or cooling. Regular professional maintenance aids in catching minor problems before they escalate into significant system failures.


In summary, maintaining even heating and cooling across rooms involves several regular maintenance practices: changing air filters frequently; inspecting ductwork for leaks; cleaning vents; calibrating thermostats; checking insulation levels; and scheduling annual professional inspections of your HVAC system. These measures not only improve comfort but also enhance energy efficiency while extending the lifespan of heating and cooling equipment-benefiting both homeowners' wallets and environmental sustainability efforts alike.

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Sick building syndrome
Specialty Environmental medicine, immunology Edit this on Wikidata

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside.[1] In scientific literature, SBS is also known as building-related illness (BRI), building-related symptoms (BRS), or idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI).

The main identifying observation is an increased incidence of complaints of such symptoms as headache, eye, nose, and throat irritation, fatigue, dizziness, and nausea. The 1989 Oxford English Dictionary defines SBS in that way.[2] The World Health Organization created a 484-page tome on indoor air quality 1984, when SBS was attributed only to non-organic causes, and suggested that the book might form a basis for legislation or litigation.[3]

The outbreaks may or may not be a direct result of inadequate or inappropriate cleaning.[2] SBS has also been used to describe staff concerns in post-war buildings with faulty building aerodynamics, construction materials, construction process, and maintenance.[2] Some symptoms tend to increase in severity with the time people spend in the building, often improving or even disappearing when people are away from the building.[2][4] The term SBS is also used interchangeably with "building-related symptoms", which orients the name of the condition around patients' symptoms rather than a "sick" building.[5]

Attempts have been made to connect sick building syndrome to various causes, such as contaminants produced by outgassing of some building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone (produced by the operation of some office machines), light industrial chemicals used within, and insufficient fresh-air intake or air filtration (see "Minimum efficiency reporting value").[2] Sick building syndrome has also been attributed to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, an attribution about which there are inconsistent findings.[6]

Signs and symptoms

[edit]
An air quality monitor

Human exposure to aerosols has a variety of adverse health effects.[7] Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sensory irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat; neurotoxic or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecific hypersensitivity reactions; infectious diseases;[8] and odor and taste sensations.[9] Poor lighting has caused general malaise.[10]

Extrinsic allergic alveolitis has been associated with the presence of fungi and bacteria in the moist air of residential houses and commercial offices.[11] A study in 2017 correlated several inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract with objective evidence of damp-caused damage in homes.[12]

The WHO has classified the reported symptoms into broad categories, including mucous-membrane irritation (eye, nose, and throat irritation), neurotoxic effects (headaches, fatigue, and irritability), asthma and asthma-like symptoms (chest tightness and wheezing), skin dryness and irritation, and gastrointestinal complaints.[13]

Several sick occupants may report individual symptoms that do not seem connected. The key to discovery is the increased incidence of illnesses in general with onset or exacerbation in a short period, usually weeks. In most cases, SBS symptoms are relieved soon after the occupants leave the particular room or zone.[14] However, there can be lingering effects of various neurotoxins, which may not clear up when the occupant leaves the building. In some cases, including those of sensitive people, there are long-term health effects.[15]

Cause

[edit]

ASHRAE has recognized that polluted urban air, designated within the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s air quality ratings as unacceptable, requires the installation of treatment such as filtration for which the HVAC practitioners generally apply carbon-impregnated filters and their likes. Different toxins will aggravate the human body in different ways. Some people are more allergic to mold, while others are highly sensitive to dust. Inadequate ventilation will exaggerate small problems (such as deteriorating fiberglass insulation or cooking fumes) into a much more serious indoor air quality problem.[10]

Common products such as paint, insulation, rigid foam, particle board, plywood, duct liners, exhaust fumes and other chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources, and biological contaminants can be trapped inside by the HVAC AC system. As this air is recycled using fan coils the overall oxygenation ratio drops and becomes harmful. When combined with other stress factors such as traffic noise and poor lighting, inhabitants of buildings located in a polluted urban area can quickly become ill as their immune system is overwhelmed.[10]

Certain VOCs, considered toxic chemical contaminants to humans, are used as adhesives in many common building construction products. These aromatic carbon rings / VOCs can cause acute and chronic health effects in the occupants of a building, including cancer, paralysis, lung failure, and others. Bacterial spores, fungal spores, mold spores, pollen, and viruses are types of biological contaminants and can all cause allergic reactions or illness described as SBS. In addition, pollution from outdoors, such as motor vehicle exhaust, can enter buildings, worsen indoor air quality, and increase the indoor concentration of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.[16] Adult SBS symptoms were associated with a history of allergic rhinitis, eczema and asthma.[17]

A 2015 study concerning the association of SBS and indoor air pollutants in office buildings in Iran found that, as carbon dioxide increased in a building, nausea, headaches, nasal irritation, dyspnea, and throat dryness also rose.[10] Some work conditions have been correlated with specific symptoms: brighter light, for example was significantly related to skin dryness, eye pain, and malaise.[10] Higher temperature is correlated with sneezing, skin redness, itchy eyes, and headache; lower relative humidity has been associated with sneezing, skin redness, and eye pain.[10]

In 1973, in response to the oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62-81 reduced required ventilation from 10 cubic feet per minute (4.7 L/s) per person to 5 cubic feet per minute (2.4 L/s) per person, but this was found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.[18] As of the 2016 revision, ASHRAE ventilation standards call for 5 to 10 cubic feet per minute of ventilation per occupant (depending on the occupancy type) in addition to ventilation based on the zone floor area delivered to the breathing zone.[19]

Workplace

[edit]

Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and poor communication are often seen to be associated with SBS, recent[when?] studies show that a combination of environmental sensitivity and stress can greatly contribute to sick building syndrome.[15][citation needed]

Greater effects were found with features of the psycho-social work environment including high job demands and low support. The report concluded that the physical environment of office buildings appears to be less important than features of the psycho-social work environment in explaining differences in the prevalence of symptoms. However, there is still a relationship between sick building syndrome and symptoms of workers regardless of workplace stress.[20]

Specific work-related stressors are related with specific SBS symptoms. Workload and work conflict are significantly associated with general symptoms (headache, abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or nausea). While crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are associated with upper respiratory symptoms.[21] Work productivity has been associated with ventilation rates, a contributing factor to SBS, and there's a significant increase in production as ventilation rates increase, by 1.7% for every two-fold increase of ventilation rate.[22] Printer effluent, released into the office air as ultra-fine particles (UFPs) as toner is burned during the printing process, may lead to certain SBS symptoms.[23][24] Printer effluent may contain a variety of toxins to which a subset of office workers are sensitive, triggering SBS symptoms.[25]

Specific careers are also associated with specific SBS symptoms. Transport, communication, healthcare, and social workers have highest prevalence of general symptoms. Skin symptoms such as eczema, itching, and rashes on hands and face are associated with technical work. Forestry, agriculture, and sales workers have the lowest rates of sick building syndrome symptoms.[26]

From the assessment done by Fisk and Mudarri, 21% of asthma cases in the United States were caused by wet environments with mold that exist in all indoor environments, such as schools, office buildings, houses and apartments. Fisk and Berkeley Laboratory colleagues also found that the exposure to the mold increases the chances of respiratory issues by 30 to 50 percent.[27] Additionally, studies showing that health effects with dampness and mold in indoor environments found that increased risk of adverse health effects occurs with dampness or visible mold environments.[28]

Milton et al. determined the cost of sick leave specific for one business was an estimated $480 per employee, and about five days of sick leave per year could be attributed to low ventilation rates. When comparing low ventilation rate areas of the building to higher ventilation rate areas, the relative risk of short-term sick leave was 1.53 times greater in the low ventilation areas.[29]

Home

[edit]

Sick building syndrome can be caused by one's home. Laminate flooring may release more SBS-causing chemicals than do stone, tile, and concrete floors.[17] Recent redecorating and new furnishings within the last year are associated with increased symptoms; so are dampness and related factors, having pets, and cockroaches.[17] Mosquitoes are related to more symptoms, but it is unclear whether the immediate cause of the symptoms is the mosquitoes or the repellents used against them.[17]

Mold

[edit]

Sick building syndrome may be associated with indoor mold or mycotoxin contamination. However, the attribution of sick building syndrome to mold is controversial and supported by little evidence.[30][31][32]

Indoor temperature

[edit]

Indoor temperature under 18 °C (64 °F) has been shown to be associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, increased blood levels, and increased hospitalization.[33]

Diagnosis

[edit]

While sick building syndrome (SBS) encompasses a multitude of non-specific symptoms, building-related illness (BRI) comprises specific, diagnosable symptoms caused by certain agents (chemicals, bacteria, fungi, etc.). These can typically be identified, measured, and quantified.[34] There are usually four causal agents in BRi: immunologic, infectious, toxic, and irritant.[34] For instance, Legionnaire's disease, usually caused by Legionella pneumophila, involves a specific organism which could be ascertained through clinical findings as the source of contamination within a building.[34]

Prevention

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  • Reduction of time spent in the building
  • If living in the building, moving to a new place
  • Fixing any deteriorated paint or concrete deterioration
  • Regular inspections to indicate for presence of mold or other toxins
  • Adequate maintenance of all building mechanical systems
  • Toxin-absorbing plants, such as sansevieria[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][excessive citations]
  • Roof shingle non-pressure cleaning for removal of algae, mold, and Gloeocapsa magma
  • Using ozone to eliminate the many sources, such as VOCs, molds, mildews, bacteria, viruses, and even odors. However, numerous studies identify high-ozone shock treatment as ineffective despite commercial popularity and popular belief.
  • Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting
  • Only using paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well-ventilated areas or only using these pollutant sources during periods of non-occupancy
  • Increasing the number of air exchanges; the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers recommend a minimum of 8.4 air exchanges per 24-hour period
  • Increased ventilation rates that are above the minimum guidelines[22]
  • Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems
  • UV-C light in the HVAC plenum
  • Installation of HVAC air cleaning systems or devices to remove VOCs and bioeffluents (people odors)
  • Central vacuums that completely remove all particles from the house including the ultrafine particles (UFPs) which are less than 0.1 μm
  • Regular vacuuming with a HEPA filter vacuum cleaner to collect and retain 99.97% of particles down to and including 0.3 micrometers
  • Placing bedding in sunshine, which is related to a study done in a high-humidity area where damp bedding was common and associated with SBS[17]
  • Lighting in the workplace should be designed to give individuals control, and be natural when possible[42]
  • Relocating office printers outside the air conditioning boundary, perhaps to another building
  • Replacing current office printers with lower emission rate printers[43]
  • Identification and removal of products containing harmful ingredients

Management

[edit]

SBS, as a non-specific blanket term, does not have any specific cause or cure. Any known cure would be associated with the specific eventual disease that was cause by exposure to known contaminants. In all cases, alleviation consists of removing the affected person from the building associated. BRI, on the other hand, utilizes treatment appropriate for the contaminant identified within the building (e.g., antibiotics for Legionnaire's disease).[citation needed]

Improving the indoor air quality (IAQ) of a particular building can attenuate, or even eliminate, the continued exposure to toxins. However, a Cochrane review of 12 mold and dampness remediation studies in private homes, workplaces and schools by two independent authors were deemed to be very low to moderate quality of evidence in reducing adult asthma symptoms and results were inconsistent among children.[44] For the individual, the recovery may be a process involved with targeting the acute symptoms of a specific illness, as in the case of mold toxins.[45] Treating various building-related illnesses is vital to the overall understanding of SBS. Careful analysis by certified building professionals and physicians can help to identify the exact cause of the BRI, and help to illustrate a causal path to infection. With this knowledge one can, theoretically, remediate a building of contaminants and rebuild the structure with new materials. Office BRI may more likely than not be explained by three events: "Wide range in the threshold of response in any population (susceptibility), a spectrum of response to any given agent, or variability in exposure within large office buildings."[46]

Isolating any one of the three aspects of office BRI can be a great challenge, which is why those who find themselves with BRI should take three steps, history, examinations, and interventions. History describes the action of continually monitoring and recording the health of workers experiencing BRI, as well as obtaining records of previous building alterations or related activity. Examinations go hand in hand with monitoring employee health. This step is done by physically examining the entire workspace and evaluating possible threats to health status among employees. Interventions follow accordingly based on the results of the Examination and History report.[46]

Epidemiology

[edit]

Some studies have found that women have higher reports of SBS symptoms than men.[17][10] It is not entirely clear, however, if this is due to biological, social, or occupational factors.

A 2001 study published in the Journal Indoor Air, gathered 1464 office-working participants to increase the scientific understanding of gender differences under the Sick Building Syndrome phenomenon.[47] Using questionnaires, ergonomic investigations, building evaluations, as well as physical, biological, and chemical variables, the investigators obtained results that compare with past studies of SBS and gender. The study team found that across most test variables, prevalence rates were different in most areas, but there was also a deep stratification of working conditions between genders as well. For example, men's workplaces tend to be significantly larger and have all-around better job characteristics. Secondly, there was a noticeable difference in reporting rates, specifically that women have higher rates of reporting roughly 20% higher than men. This information was similar to that found in previous studies, thus indicating a potential difference in willingness to report.[47]

There might be a gender difference in reporting rates of sick building syndrome, because women tend to report more symptoms than men do. Along with this, some studies have found that women have a more responsive immune system and are more prone to mucosal dryness and facial erythema. Also, women are alleged by some to be more exposed to indoor environmental factors because they have a greater tendency to have clerical jobs, wherein they are exposed to unique office equipment and materials (example: blueprint machines, toner-based printers), whereas men often have jobs based outside of offices.[48]

History

[edit]

In the late 1970s, it was noted that nonspecific symptoms were reported by tenants in newly constructed homes, offices, and nurseries. In media it was called "office illness". The term "sick building syndrome" was coined by the WHO in 1986, when they also estimated that 10–30% of newly built office buildings in the West had indoor air problems. Early Danish and British studies reported symptoms.

Poor indoor environments attracted attention. The Swedish allergy study (SOU 1989:76) designated "sick building" as a cause of the allergy epidemic as was feared. In the 1990s, therefore, extensive research into "sick building" was carried out. Various physical and chemical factors in the buildings were examined on a broad front.

The problem was highlighted increasingly in media and was described as a "ticking time bomb". Many studies were performed in individual buildings.

In the 1990s "sick buildings" were contrasted against "healthy buildings". The chemical contents of building materials were highlighted. Many building material manufacturers were actively working to gain control of the chemical content and to replace criticized additives. The ventilation industry advocated above all more well-functioning ventilation. Others perceived ecological construction, natural materials, and simple techniques as a solution.

At the end of the 1990s came an increased distrust of the concept of "sick building". A dissertation at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm 1999 questioned the methodology of previous research, and a Danish study from 2005 showed these flaws experimentally. It was suggested that sick building syndrome was not really a coherent syndrome and was not a disease to be individually diagnosed, but a collection of as many as a dozen semi-related diseases. In 2006 the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare recommended in the medical journal Läkartidningen that "sick building syndrome" should not be used as a clinical diagnosis. Thereafter, it has become increasingly less common to use terms such as sick buildings and sick building syndrome in research. However, the concept remains alive in popular culture and is used to designate the set of symptoms related to poor home or work environment engineering. Sick building is therefore an expression used especially in the context of workplace health.

Sick building syndrome made a rapid journey from media to courtroom where professional engineers and architects became named defendants and were represented by their respective professional practice insurers. Proceedings invariably relied on expert witnesses, medical and technical experts along with building managers, contractors and manufacturers of finishes and furnishings, testifying as to cause and effect. Most of these actions resulted in sealed settlement agreements, none of these being dramatic. The insurers needed a defense based upon Standards of Professional Practice to meet a court decision that declared that in a modern, essentially sealed building, the HVAC systems must produce breathing air for suitable human consumption. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, currently with over 50,000 international members) undertook the task of codifying its indoor air quality (IAQ) standard.

ASHRAE empirical research determined that "acceptability" was a function of outdoor (fresh air) ventilation rate and used carbon dioxide as an accurate measurement of occupant presence and activity. Building odors and contaminants would be suitably controlled by this dilution methodology. ASHRAE codified a level of 1,000 ppm of carbon dioxide and specified the use of widely available sense-and-control equipment to assure compliance. The 1989 issue of ASHRAE 62.1-1989 published the whys and wherefores and overrode the 1981 requirements that were aimed at a ventilation level of 5,000 ppm of carbon dioxide (the OSHA workplace limit), federally set to minimize HVAC system energy consumption. This apparently ended the SBS epidemic.

Over time, building materials changed with respect to emissions potential. Smoking vanished and dramatic improvements in ambient air quality, coupled with code compliant ventilation and maintenance, per ASHRAE standards have all contributed to the acceptability of the indoor air environment.[49][50]

See also

[edit]
  • Aerotoxic syndrome
  • Air purifier
  • Asthmagen
  • Cleanroom
  • Electromagnetic hypersensitivity
  • Havana syndrome
  • Healthy building
  • Indoor air quality
  • Lead paint
  • Multiple chemical sensitivity
  • NASA Clean Air Study
  • Nosocomial infection
  • Particulates
  • Power tools
  • Renovation
  • Somatization disorder
  • Fan death

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome" (PDF). World Health Organization. n.d.
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  3. ^ European Centre for Environment and Health, WHO (1983). WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (PDF). EURO Reports and Studies, no 78. Bonn Germany Office: WHO Regional Office for Europe (Copenhagen).
  4. ^ Stolwijk, J A (1991-11-01). "Sick-building syndrome". Environmental Health Perspectives. 95: 99–100. doi:10.1289/ehp.919599. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1568418. PMID 1821387.
  5. ^ Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals (PDF). Indoor Air Division (6609J): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. c. 2015.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
  6. ^ Shahzad, Sally S.; Brennan, John; Theodossopoulos, Dimitris; Hughes, Ben; Calautit, John Kaiser (2016-04-06). "Building-Related Symptoms, Energy, and Thermal Control in the Workplace: Personal and Open Plan Offices". Sustainability. 8 (4): 331. doi:10.3390/su8040331. hdl:20.500.11820/03eb7043-814e-437d-b920-4a38bb88742c.
  7. ^ Sundell, J; Lindval, T; Berndt, S (1994). "Association between type of ventilation and airflow rates in office buildings and the risk of SBS-symptoms among occupants". Environ. Int. 20 (2): 239–251. Bibcode:1994EnInt..20..239S. doi:10.1016/0160-4120(94)90141-4.
  8. ^ Rylander, R (1997). "Investigation of the relationship between disease and airborne (1P3)-b-D-glucan in buildings". Med. Of Inflamm. 6 (4): 275–277. doi:10.1080/09629359791613. PMC 2365865. PMID 18472858.
  9. ^ Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental Quality. New York: CRC Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 1-56670-402-2
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Jafari, Mohammad Javad; Khajevandi, Ali Asghar; Mousavi Najarkola, Seyed Ali; Yekaninejad, Mir Saeed; Pourhoseingholi, Mohammad Amin; Omidi, Leila; Kalantary, Saba (2015-01-01). "Association of Sick Building Syndrome with Indoor Air Parameters". Tanaffos. 14 (1): 55–62. ISSN 1735-0344. PMC 4515331. PMID 26221153.
  11. ^ Teculescu, D. B. (1998). "Sick Building Symptoms in office workers in northern France: a pilot study". Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 71 (5): 353–356. doi:10.1007/s004200050292. PMID 9749975. S2CID 25095874.
  12. ^ Pind C. Ahlroth (2017). "Patient-reported signs of dampness at home may be a risk factor for chronic rhinosinusitis: A cross-sectional study". Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 47 (11): 1383–1389. doi:10.1111/cea.12976. PMID 28695715. S2CID 40807627.
  13. ^ Apter, A (1994). "Epidemiology of the sick building syndrome". J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 94 (2): 277–288. doi:10.1053/ai.1994.v94.a56006. PMID 8077580.
  14. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome". NSC.org. National Safety Council. 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2009.
  15. ^ a b Joshi, Sumedha M. (August 2008). "The sick building syndrome". Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 12 (2): 61–64. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.43262. ISSN 0973-2284. PMC 2796751. PMID 20040980.
  16. ^ "Indoor Air Facts No.4: Sick Building Syndrome" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1991. Retrieved 2009-02-19.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Wang, Juan; Li, BaiZhan; Yang, Qin; Wang, Han; Norback, Dan; Sundell, Jan (2013-12-01). "Sick building syndrome among parents of preschool children in relation to home environment in Chongqing, China". Chinese Science Bulletin. 58 (34): 4267–4276. Bibcode:2013ChSBu..58.4267W. doi:10.1007/s11434-013-5814-2. ISSN 1001-6538.
  18. ^ Joshi S. M. (2008). "The sick building syndrome". Indian J. Occup. Environ. Med. 12 (2): 61–4. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.43262. PMC 2796751. PMID 20040980. in section 3 "Inadequate ventilation".
  19. ^ ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2016.
  20. ^ Bauer R. M., Greve K. W., Besch E. L., Schramke C. J., Crouch J., Hicks A., Lyles W. B. (1992). "The role of psychological factors in the report of building-related symptoms in sick building syndrome". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 60 (2): 213–219. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.213. PMID 1592950.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Azuma K., Ikeda K., Kagi N., Yanagi U., Osawa H. (2014). "Prevalence and risk factors associated with nonspecific building-related symptoms in office employees in Japan: Relationships between work environment, Indoor Air Quality, and occupational stress". Indoor Air. 25 (5): 499–511. doi:10.1111/ina.12158. PMID 25244340.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ a b Wargocki P., Wyon D. P., Sundell J., Clausen G., Fanger P. O. (2000). "The Effects of Outdoor Air Supply Rate in an Office on Perceived Air Quality, Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) Symptoms and Productivity". Indoor Air. 10 (4): 222–236. Bibcode:2000InAir..10..222W. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.2000.010004222.x. PMID 11089327.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Morimoto, Yasuo; Ogami, Akira; Kochi, Isamu; Uchiyama, Tetsuro; Ide, Reiko; Myojo, Toshihiko; Higashi, Toshiaki (2010). "[Continuing investigation of effect of toner and its by-product on human health and occupational health management of toner]". Sangyo Eiseigaku Zasshi = Journal of Occupational Health. 52 (5): 201–208. doi:10.1539/sangyoeisei.a10002. ISSN 1349-533X. PMID 20595787.
  24. ^ Pirela, Sandra Vanessa; Martin, John; Bello, Dhimiter; Demokritou, Philip (September 2017). "Nanoparticle exposures from nano-enabled toner-based printing equipment and human health: state of science and future research needs". Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 47 (8): 678–704. doi:10.1080/10408444.2017.1318354. ISSN 1547-6898. PMC 5857386. PMID 28524743.
  25. ^ McKone, Thomas, et al. "Indoor Pollutant Emissions from Electronic Office Equipment, California Air Resources Board Air Pollution Seminar Series". Presented January 7, 2009. https://www.arb.ca.gov/research/seminars/mckone/mckone.pdf Archived 2017-02-07 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ Norback D., Edling C. (1991). "Environmental, occupational, and personal factors related to the prevalence of sick building syndrome in the general population". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 48 (7): 451–462. doi:10.1136/oem.48.7.451. PMC 1035398. PMID 1854648.
  27. ^ Weinhold, Bob (2007-06-01). "A Spreading Concern: Inhalational Health Effects of Mold". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (6): A300–A305. doi:10.1289/ehp.115-a300. PMC 1892134. PMID 17589582.
  28. ^ Mudarri, D.; Fisk, W. J. (June 2007). "Public health and economic impact of dampness and mold". Indoor Air. 17 (3): 226–235. Bibcode:2007InAir..17..226M. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00474.x. ISSN 0905-6947. PMID 17542835. S2CID 21709547.
  29. ^ Milton D. K., Glencross P. M., Walters M. D. (2000). "Risk of Sick Leave Associated with Outdoor Air Supply Rate, Humidification, and Occupant Complaints". Indoor Air. 10 (4): 212–221. Bibcode:2000InAir..10..212M. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.2000.010004212.x. PMID 11089326.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Straus, David C. (2009). "Molds, mycotoxins, and sick building syndrome". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 25 (9–10): 617–635. Bibcode:2009ToxIH..25..617S. doi:10.1177/0748233709348287. PMID 19854820. S2CID 30720328.
  31. ^ Terr, Abba I. (2009). "Sick Building Syndrome: Is mould the cause?". Medical Mycology. 47: S217–S222. doi:10.1080/13693780802510216. PMID 19255924.
  32. ^ Norbäck, Dan; Zock, Jan-Paul; Plana, Estel; Heinrich, Joachim; Svanes, Cecilie; Sunyer, Jordi; Künzli, Nino; Villani, Simona; Olivieri, Mario; Soon, Argo; Jarvis, Deborah (2011-05-01). "Lung function decline in relation to mould and dampness in the home: the longitudinal European Community Respiratory Health Survey ECRHS II". Thorax. 66 (5): 396–401. doi:10.1136/thx.2010.146613. ISSN 0040-6376. PMID 21325663. S2CID 318027.
  33. ^ WHO Housing and health guidelines. World Health Organization. 2018. pp. 34, 47–48. ISBN 978-92-4-155037-6.
  34. ^ a b c Seltzer, J. M. (1994-08-01). "Building-related illnesses". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 94 (2 Pt 2): 351–361. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(94)90096-5. ISSN 0091-6749. PMID 8077589.
  35. ^ nasa techdoc 19930072988
  36. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome: How indoor plants can help clear the air | University of Technology Sydney".
  37. ^ Wolverton, B. C.; Johnson, Anne; Bounds, Keith (15 September 1989). Interior Landscape Plants for Indoor Air Pollution Abatement (PDF) (Report).
  38. ^ Joshi, S. M (2008). "The sick building syndrome". Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 12 (2): 61–64. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.43262. PMC 2796751. PMID 20040980.
  39. ^ "Benefits of Office Plants – Tove Fjeld (Agri. Uni. Of Norway)". 2018-05-13.
  40. ^ "NASA: 18 Plants Purify Air, Sick Building Syndrome". 2016-09-20. Archived from the original on 2020-10-26.
  41. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome – How Plants Can Help".
  42. ^ How to deal with sick building syndrome: Guidance for employers, building owners and building managers. (1995). Sudbury: The Executive.
  43. ^ Scungio, Mauro; Vitanza, Tania; Stabile, Luca; Buonanno, Giorgio; Morawska, Lidia (2017-05-15). "Characterization of particle emission from laser printers" (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 586: 623–630. Bibcode:2017ScTEn.586..623S. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.030. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 28196755.
  44. ^ Sauni, Riitta; Verbeek, Jos H; Uitti, Jukka; Jauhiainen, Merja; Kreiss, Kathleen; Sigsgaard, Torben (2015-02-25). Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Group (ed.). "Remediating buildings damaged by dampness and mould for preventing or reducing respiratory tract symptoms, infections and asthma". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (2): CD007897. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007897.pub3. PMC 6769180. PMID 25715323.
  45. ^ Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick building syndrome. Available from: [1].
  46. ^ a b Menzies, Dick; Bourbeau, Jean (1997-11-20). "Building-Related Illnesses". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1524–1531. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372107. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 9366585.
  47. ^ a b Brasche, S.; Bullinger, M.; Morfeld, M.; Gebhardt, H. J.; Bischof, W. (2001-12-01). "Why do women suffer from sick building syndrome more often than men?--subjective higher sensitivity versus objective causes". Indoor Air. 11 (4): 217–222. Bibcode:2001InAir..11..217B. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.2001.110402.x. ISSN 0905-6947. PMID 11761596. S2CID 21579339.
  48. ^ Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental quality. New York: CRC Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 1-56670-402-2
  49. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome – Fact Sheet" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
  50. ^ "Sick Building Syndrome". National Health Service, England. Retrieved 2013-06-06.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Martín-Gil J., Yanguas M. C., San José J. F., Rey-Martínez and Martín-Gil F. J. "Outcomes of research into a sick hospital". Hospital Management International, 1997, pp. 80–82. Sterling Publications Limited.
  • Åke Thörn, The Emergence and preservation of sick building syndrome, KI 1999.
  • Charlotte Brauer, The sick building syndrome revisited, Copenhagen 2005.
  • Michelle Murphy, Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty, 2006.
  • Johan Carlson, "Gemensam förklaringsmodell för sjukdomar kopplade till inomhusmiljön finns inte" [Unified explanation for diseases related to indoor environment not found]. Läkartidningen 2006/12.
  • Bulletin of the Transilvania University of BraÅŸov, Series I: Engineering Sciences • Vol. 5 (54) No. 1 2012 "Impact of Indoor Environment Quality on Sick Building Syndrome in Indian Leed Certified Buildings". by Jagannathan Mohan
[edit]
  • Best Practices for Indoor Air Quality when Remodeling Your Home, US EPA
  • Renovation and Repair, Part of Indoor Air Quality Design Tools for Schools, US EPA
  • Addressing Indoor Environmental Concerns During Remodeling, US EPA
  • Dust FAQs, UK HSE Archived 2023-03-20 at the Wayback Machine
  • CCOHS: Welding - Fumes And Gases | Health Effect of Welding Fumes

 

 

There are various types of air conditioners. Popular examples include: Window-mounted air conditioner (Suriname, 1955); Ceiling-mounted cassette air conditioner (China, 2023); Wall-mounted air conditioner (Japan, 2020); Ceiling-mounted console (Also called ceiling suspended) air conditioner (China, 2023); and portable air conditioner (Vatican City, 2018).

 

Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C (US) or air con (UK),[1] is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature (sometimes referred to as 'comfort cooling') and in some cases also strictly controlling the humidity of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or by other methods, including passive cooling and ventilative cooling.[2][3] Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).[4] Heat pumps are similar in many ways to air conditioners, but use a reversing valve to allow them both to heat and to cool an enclosed space.[5]

Air conditioners, which typically use vapor-compression refrigeration, range in size from small units used in vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings.[6] Air source heat pumps, which can be used for heating as well as cooling, are becoming increasingly common in cooler climates.

Air conditioners can reduce mortality rates due to higher temperature.[7] According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used globally in 2016.[8] The United Nations called for the technology to be made more sustainable to mitigate climate change and for the use of alternatives, like passive cooling, evaporative cooling, selective shading, windcatchers, and better thermal insulation.

History

[edit]

Air conditioning dates back to prehistory.[9] Double-walled living quarters, with a gap between the two walls to encourage air flow, were found in the ancient city of Hamoukar, in modern Syria.[10] Ancient Egyptian buildings also used a wide variety of passive air-conditioning techniques.[11] These became widespread from the Iberian Peninsula through North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern India.[12]

Passive techniques remained widespread until the 20th century when they fell out of fashion and were replaced by powered air conditioning. Using information from engineering studies of traditional buildings, passive techniques are being revived and modified for 21st-century architectural designs.[13][12]

An array of air conditioner condenser units outside a commercial office building

Air conditioners allow the building's indoor environment to remain relatively constant, largely independent of changes in external weather conditions and internal heat loads. They also enable deep plan buildings to be created and have allowed people to live comfortably in hotter parts of the world.[14]

Development

[edit]

Preceding discoveries

[edit]

In 1558, Giambattista della Porta described a method of chilling ice to temperatures far below its freezing point by mixing it with potassium nitrate (then called "nitre") in his popular science book Natural Magic.[15][16][17] In 1620, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England, chilling part of the Great Hall of Westminster Abbey with an apparatus of troughs and vats.[18] Drebbel's contemporary Francis Bacon, like della Porta a believer in science communication, may not have been present at the demonstration, but in a book published later the same year, he described it as "experiment of artificial freezing" and said that "Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies the cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold of the snow."[15]

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at the University of Cambridge, conducted experiments applying the principle of evaporation as a means to cool an object rapidly. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that the evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They experimented with the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer as their object. They used a bellows to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm (14 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."[19]

The 19th century included many developments in compression technology. In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.[20] In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings.[20][21] He envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851,[22] but following the death of his main backer, he was not able to realize his invention.[23] In 1851, James Harrison created the first mechanical ice-making machine in Geelong, Australia, and was granted a patent for an ether vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1855 that produced three tons of ice per day.[24] In 1860, Harrison established a second ice company. He later entered the debate over competing against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom.[24]

First devices

[edit]
Willis Carrier, who is credited with building the first modern electrical air conditioning unit

Electricity made the development of effective units possible. In 1901, American inventor Willis H. Carrier built what is considered the first modern electrical air conditioning unit.[25][26][27][28] In 1902, he installed his first air-conditioning system, in the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing & Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York.[29] His invention controlled both the temperature and humidity, which helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment at the printing plant. Later, together with six other employees, Carrier formed The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America, a business that in 2020 employed 53,000 people and was valued at $18.6 billion.[30][31]

In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina, was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning" in a patent claim which he filed that year, where he suggested that air conditioning was analogous to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process.[32] He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories; thus, controlling the humidity that is necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.[33]

Domestic air conditioning soon took off. In 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed in Minneapolis in the home of Charles Gilbert Gates. It is, however, possible that the considerable device (c. 2.1 m × 1.8 m × 6.1 m; 7 ft × 6 ft × 20 ft) was never used, as the house remained uninhabited[20] (Gates had already died in October 1913.)

In 1931, H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman developed what would become the most common type of individual room air conditioner: one designed to sit on a window ledge. The units went on sale in 1932 at US$10,000 to $50,000 (the equivalent of $200,000 to $1,100,000 in 2023.)[20] A year later, the first air conditioning systems for cars were offered for sale.[34] Chrysler Motors introduced the first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit in 1935,[35] and Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars in 1939.[36]

Further development

[edit]

Innovations in the latter half of the 20th century allowed more ubiquitous air conditioner use. In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts, invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[37] The first inverter air conditioners were released in 1980–1981.[38][39]

In 1954, Ned Cole, a 1939 architecture graduate from the University of Texas at Austin, developed the first experimental "suburb" with inbuilt air conditioning in each house. 22 homes were developed on a flat, treeless track in northwest Austin, Texas, and the community was christened the 'Austin Air-Conditioned Village.' The residents were subjected to a year-long study of the effects of air conditioning led by the nation’s premier air conditioning companies, builders, and social scientists. In addition, researchers from UT’s Health Service and Psychology Department studied the effects on the "artificially cooled humans." One of the more amusing discoveries was that each family reported being troubled with scorpions, the leading theory being that scorpions sought cool, shady places. Other reported changes in lifestyle were that mothers baked more, families ate heavier foods, and they were more apt to choose hot drinks.[40][41]

Air conditioner adoption tends to increase above around $10,000 annual household income in warmer areas.[42] Global GDP growth explains around 85% of increased air condition adoption by 2050, while the remaining 15% can be explained by climate change.[42]

As of 2016 an estimated 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used worldwide, with over half of them in China and USA, and a total cooling capacity of 11,675 gigawatts.[8][43] The International Energy Agency predicted in 2018 that the number of air conditioning units would grow to around 4 billion units by 2050 and that the total cooling capacity would grow to around 23,000 GW, with the biggest increases in India and China.[8] Between 1995 and 2004, the proportion of urban households in China with air conditioners increased from 8% to 70%.[44] As of 2015, nearly 100 million homes, or about 87% of US households, had air conditioning systems.[45] In 2019, it was estimated that 90% of new single-family homes constructed in the US included air conditioning (ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in the West).[46][47]

Operation

[edit]

Operating principles

[edit]
A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor

Cooling in traditional air conditioner systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses a refrigerant's forced circulation and phase change between gas and liquid to transfer heat.[48][49] The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a fan coil unit in an air handler) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment such as a cooling tower on its condenser side. An air source heat pump shares many components with an air conditioning system, but includes a reversing valve, which allows the unit to be used to heat as well as cool a space.[50]

Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dew point of the surrounding air. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space will typically achieve a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.[51]

Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs. At the same time, the fan is slowed to reduce the evaporator temperature and condense more water. A dehumidifier uses the same refrigeration cycle but incorporates both the evaporator and the condenser into the same air path; the air first passes over the evaporator coil, where it is cooled[52] and dehumidified before passing over the condenser coil, where it is warmed again before it is released back into the room.[citation needed]

Free cooling can sometimes be selected when the external air is cooler than the internal air. Therefore, the compressor does not need to be used, resulting in high cooling efficiencies for these times. This may also be combined with seasonal thermal energy storage.[53]

Heating

[edit]

Some air conditioning systems can reverse the refrigeration cycle and act as an air source heat pump, thus heating instead of cooling the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as "reverse cycle air conditioners". The heat pump is significantly more energy-efficient than electric resistance heating, because it moves energy from air or groundwater to the heated space and the heat from purchased electrical energy. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

Most air source heat pumps become less efficient in outdoor temperatures lower than 4 °C or 40 °F.[54] This is partly because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to the condenser coil, to heat up and defrost. Therefore, some heat pump systems will have electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

Newer models have improved cold-weather performance, with efficient heating capacity down to −14 °F (−26 °C).[55][54][56] However, there is always a chance that the humidity that condenses on the heat exchanger of the outdoor unit could freeze, even in models that have improved cold-weather performance, requiring a defrosting cycle to be performed.

The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are sometimes installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as an electrical heater, a natural gas, heating oil, or wood-burning fireplace or central heating, which is used instead of or in addition to the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

Performance

[edit]

The coefficient of performance (COP) of an air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to the work required.[57][58] Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1; however, the exact value is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.[59] Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration", with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2,000 pounds (910 kg) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is equal to 12,000 BTUIT per hour, or 3,517 watts.[60] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.[citation needed]

The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment.[61] A similar standard is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER).[citation needed]

Efficiency is strongly affected by the humidity of the air to be cooled. Dehumidifying the air before attempting to cool it can reduce subsequent cooling costs by as much as 90 percent. Thus, reducing dehumidifying costs can materially affect overall air conditioning costs.[62]

Control system

[edit]

Wireless remote control

[edit]
A wireless remote controller
The infrared transmitting LED on the remote
The infrared receiver on the air conditioner

This type of controller uses an infrared LED to relay commands from a remote control to the air conditioner. The output of the infrared LED (like that of any infrared remote) is invisible to the human eye because its wavelength is beyond the range of visible light (940 nm). This system is commonly used on mini-split air conditioners because it is simple and portable. Some window and ducted central air conditioners uses it as well.

Wired controller

[edit]
Several wired controllers (Indonesia, 2024)

A wired controller, also called a "wired thermostat," is a device that controls an air conditioner by switching heating or cooling on or off. It uses different sensors to measure temperatures and actuate control operations. Mechanical thermostats commonly use bimetallic strips, converting a temperature change into mechanical displacement, to actuate control of the air conditioner. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor sensor, processing temperature change as electronic signals to control the air conditioner.

These controllers are usually used in hotel rooms because they are permanently installed into a wall and hard-wired directly into the air conditioner unit, eliminating the need for batteries.

Types

[edit]
 
Types Typical Capacity* Air supply Mounting Typical application
Mini-split small – large Direct Wall Residential
Window very small – small Direct Window Residential
Portable very small – small Direct / Ducted Floor Residential, remote areas
Ducted (individual) small – very large Ducted Ceiling Residential, commercial
Ducted (central) medium – very large Ducted Ceiling Residential, commercial
Ceiling suspended medium – large Direct Ceiling Commercial
Cassette medium – large Direct / Ducted Ceiling Commercial
Floor standing medium – large Direct / Ducted Floor Commercial
Packaged very large Direct / Ducted Floor Commercial
Packaged RTU (Rooftop Unit) very large Ducted Rooftop Commercial

* where the typical capacity is in kilowatt as follows:

  • very small: <1.5 kW
  • small: 1.5–3.5 kW
  • medium: 4.2–7.1 kW
  • large: 7.2–14 kW
  • very large: >14 kW

Mini-split and multi-split systems

[edit]
Evaporator, indoor unit, or terminal, side of a ductless split-type air conditioner

Ductless systems (often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini-split) typically supply conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner.[63] Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit.

The first mini-split system was sold in 1961 by Toshiba in Japan, and the first wall-mounted mini-split air conditioner was sold in 1968 in Japan by Mitsubishi Electric, where small home sizes motivated their development. The Mitsubishi model was the first air conditioner with a cross-flow fan.[64][65][66] In 1969, the first mini-split air conditioner was sold in the US.[67] Multi-zone ductless systems were invented by Daikin in 1973, and variable refrigerant flow systems (which can be thought of as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan.[68] Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an air handler, eliminate the need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be conditioned, thus allowing for less space above dropped ceilings and a lower structural impact, while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces. The outdoor and indoor units can be spread across the building.[69] Variable refrigerant flow indoor units can also be turned off individually in unused spaces.[citation needed] The lower start-up power of VRF's DC inverter compressors and their inherent DC power requirements also allow VRF solar-powered heat pumps to be run using DC-providing solar panels.

Ducted central systems

[edit]

Split-system central air conditioners consist of two heat exchangers, an outside unit (the condenser) from which heat is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the evaporator, or Fan Coil Unit, FCU) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by ventilation ducts.[70] Floor standing air conditioners are similar to this type of air conditioner but sit within spaces that need cooling.

Central plant cooling

[edit]
Industrial air conditioners on top of the shopping mall Passage in Linz, Austria

Large central cooling plants may use intermediate coolant such as chilled water pumped into air handlers or fan coil units near or in the spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done due to the low density and heat capacity of air, which would require impractically large ducts. The chilled water is cooled by chillers in the plant, which uses a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often transferring its heat to the atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of cooling towers. Chillers may be air- or liquid-cooled.[71][72]

Portable units

[edit]

A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a ductless split air conditioner).

Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water, discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. Many but not all portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct, negatively impacting their overall cooling efficiency.

Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as a dehumidification function.[73]

Window unit and packaged terminal

[edit]
Through-the-wall PTAC units, University Motor Inn, Philadelphia

The packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are similar. These units are installed on a window frame or on a wall opening. The unit usually has an internal partition separating its indoor and outdoor sides, which contain the unit's condenser and evaporator, respectively. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas, or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. They may be installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a custom grill.[74]

Packaged air conditioner

[edit]

Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units)[75][76] are central systems that integrate into a single housing all the components of a split central system, and deliver air, possibly through ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors, on roofs (rooftop units),[77][78] draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be water or air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-cooled using a cooling tower.[70][79][80][81][82][83]

Types of compressors

[edit]
 
Compressor types Common applications Typical capacity Efficiency Durability Repairability
Reciprocating Refrigerator, Walk-in freezer, portable air conditioners small – large very low (small capacity)

medium (large capacity)

very low medium
Rotary vane Residential mini splits small low low easy
Scroll Commercial and central systems, VRF medium medium medium easy
Rotary screw Commercial chiller medium – large medium medium hard
Centrifugal Commercial chiller very large medium high hard
Maglev Centrifugal Commercial chiller very large high very high very hard

Reciprocating

[edit]

This compressor consists of a crankcase, crankshaft, piston rod, piston, piston ring, cylinder head and valves. [citation needed]

Scroll

[edit]

This compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to compress the refrigerant.[84] it consists of one fixed and one orbiting scrolls. This type of compressor is more efficient because it has 70 percent less moving parts than a reciprocating compressor. [citation needed]

Screw

[edit]

This compressor use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress the gas. The gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is the compression. [citation needed]

Capacity modulation technologies

[edit]

There are several ways to modulate the cooling capacity in refrigeration or air conditioning and heating systems. The most common in air conditioning are: on-off cycling, hot gas bypass, use or not of liquid injection, manifold configurations of multiple compressors, mechanical modulation (also called digital), and inverter technology. [citation needed]

Hot gas bypass

[edit]

Hot gas bypass involves injecting a quantity of gas from discharge to the suction side. The compressor will keep operating at the same speed, but due to the bypass, the refrigerant mass flow circulating with the system is reduced, and thus the cooling capacity. This naturally causes the compressor to run uselessly during the periods when the bypass is operating. The turn down capacity varies between 0 and 100%.[85]

Manifold configurations

[edit]

Several compressors can be installed in the system to provide the peak cooling capacity. Each compressor can run or not in order to stage the cooling capacity of the unit. The turn down capacity is either 0/33/66 or 100% for a trio configuration and either 0/50 or 100% for a tandem.[citation needed]

Mechanically modulated compressor

[edit]

This internal mechanical capacity modulation is based on periodic compression process with a control valve, the two scroll set move apart stopping the compression for a given time period. This method varies refrigerant flow by changing the average time of compression, but not the actual speed of the motor. Despite an excellent turndown ratio – from 10 to 100% of the cooling capacity, mechanically modulated scrolls have high energy consumption as the motor continuously runs.[citation needed]

Variable-speed compressor

[edit]

This system uses a variable-frequency drive (also called an Inverter) to control the speed of the compressor. The refrigerant flow rate is changed by the change in the speed of the compressor. The turn down ratio depends on the system configuration and manufacturer. It modulates from 15 or 25% up to 100% at full capacity with a single inverter from 12 to 100% with a hybrid tandem. This method is the most efficient way to modulate an air conditioner's capacity. It is up to 58% more efficient than a fixed speed system.[citation needed]

Impact

[edit]

Health effects

[edit]
Rooftop condenser unit fitted on top of an Osaka Municipal Subway 10 series subway carriage. Air conditioning has become increasingly prevalent on public transport vehicles as a form of climate control, and to ensure passenger comfort and drivers' occupational safety and health.

In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent heat stroke, dehydration due to excessive sweating, electrolyte imbalance, kidney failure, and other issues due to hyperthermia.[8][86] Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States.[87][88] A 2020 study found that areas with lower use of air conditioning correlated with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.[89] The August 2003 France heatwave resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, where 80% of the victims were over 75 years old. In response, the French government required all retirement homes to have at least one air-conditioned room at 25 °C (77 °F) per floor during heatwaves.[8]

Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, hypoallergenic atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with allergies, especially mold.[90][91] However, poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaires' disease. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. The state of New York has codified requirements for registration, maintenance, and testing of cooling towers to protect against Legionella.[92]

Economic effects

[edit]

First designed to benefit targeted industries such as the press as well as large factories, the invention quickly spread to public agencies and administrations with studies with claims of increased productivity close to 24% in places equipped with air conditioning.[93]

Air conditioning caused various shifts in demography, notably that of the United States starting from the 1970s. In the US, the birth rate was lower in the spring than during other seasons until the 1970s but this difference then declined since then.[94] As of 2007, the Sun Belt contained 30% of the total US population while it was inhabited by 24% of Americans at the beginning of the 20th century.[95] Moreover, the summer mortality rate in the US, which had been higher in regions subject to a heat wave during the summer, also evened out.[7]

The spread of the use of air conditioning acts as a main driver for the growth of global demand of electricity.[96] According to a 2018 report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), it was revealed that the energy consumption for cooling in the United States, involving 328 million Americans, surpasses the combined energy consumption of 4.4 billion people in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia (excluding China).[8] A 2020 survey found that an estimated 88% of all US households use AC, increasing to 93% when solely looking at homes built between 2010 and 2020.[97]

Environmental effects

[edit]
Air conditioner farm in the facade of a building in Singapore

Space cooling including air conditioning accounted globally for 2021 terawatt-hours of energy usage in 2016 with around 99% in the form of electricity, according to a 2018 report on air-conditioning efficiency by the International Energy Agency.[8] The report predicts an increase of electricity usage due to space cooling to around 6200 TWh by 2050,[8][98] and that with the progress currently seen, greenhouse gas emissions attributable to space cooling will double: 1,135 million tons (2016) to 2,070 million tons.[8] There is some push to increase the energy efficiency of air conditioners. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the IEA found that if air conditioners could be twice as effective as now, 460 billion tons of GHG could be cut over 40 years.[99] The UNEP and IEA also recommended legislation to decrease the use of hydrofluorocarbons, better building insulation, and more sustainable temperature-controlled food supply chains going forward.[99]

Refrigerants have also caused and continue to cause serious environmental issues, including ozone depletion and climate change, as several countries have not yet ratified the Kigali Amendment to reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons.[100] CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants such as R-12 and R-22, respectively, used within air conditioners have caused damage to the ozone layer,[101] and hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants such as R-410A and R-404A, which were designed to replace CFCs and HCFCs, are instead exacerbating climate change.[102] Both issues happen due to the venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere, such as during repairs. HFO refrigerants, used in some if not most new equipment, solve both issues with an ozone damage potential (ODP) of zero and a much lower global warming potential (GWP) in the single or double digits vs. the three or four digits of hydrofluorocarbons.[103]

Hydrofluorocarbons would have raised global temperatures by around 0.3–0.5 °C (0.5–0.9 °F) by 2100 without the Kigali Amendment. With the Kigali Amendment, the increase of global temperatures by 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons is predicted to be around 0.06 °C (0.1 °F).[104]

Alternatives to continual air conditioning include passive cooling, passive solar cooling, natural ventilation, operating shades to reduce solar gain, using trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce solar gain.[citation needed]

Social effects

[edit]

Socioeconomic groups with a household income below around $10,000 tend to have a low air conditioning adoption,[42] which worsens heat-related mortality.[7] The lack of cooling can be hazardous, as areas with lower use of air conditioning correlate with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.[89] Premature mortality in NYC is projected to grow between 47% and 95% in 30 years, with lower-income and vulnerable populations most at risk.[89] Studies on the correlation between heat-related mortality and hospitalizations and living in low socioeconomic locations can be traced in Phoenix, Arizona,[105] Hong Kong,[106] China,[106] Japan,[107] and Italy.[108][109] Additionally, costs concerning health care can act as another barrier, as the lack of private health insurance during a 2009 heat wave in Australia, was associated with heat-related hospitalization.[109]

Disparities in socioeconomic status and access to air conditioning are connected by some to institutionalized racism, which leads to the association of specific marginalized communities with lower economic status, poorer health, residing in hotter neighborhoods, engaging in physically demanding labor, and experiencing limited access to cooling technologies such as air conditioning.[109] A study overlooking Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, and Michigan found that black households were half as likely to have central air conditioning units when compared to their white counterparts.[110] Especially in cities, Redlining creates heat islands, increasing temperatures in certain parts of the city.[109] This is due to materials heat-absorbing building materials and pavements and lack of vegetation and shade coverage.[111] There have been initiatives that provide cooling solutions to low-income communities, such as public cooling spaces.[8][111]

Other techniques

[edit]

Buildings designed with passive air conditioning are generally less expensive to construct and maintain than buildings with conventional HVAC systems with lower energy demands.[112] While tens of air changes per hour, and cooling of tens of degrees, can be achieved with passive methods, site-specific microclimate must be taken into account, complicating building design.[12]

Many techniques can be used to increase comfort and reduce the temperature in buildings. These include evaporative cooling, selective shading, wind, thermal convection, and heat storage.[113]

Passive ventilation

[edit]
The ventilation system of a regular earthship
Dogtrot houses are designed to maximise natural ventilation.
A roof turbine ventilator, colloquially known as a 'Whirly Bird' is an application of wind driven ventilation.

Passive ventilation is the process of supplying air to and removing air from an indoor space without using mechanical systems. It refers to the flow of external air to an indoor space as a result of pressure differences arising from natural forces.

There are two types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven ventilation. Wind driven ventilation arises from the different pressures created by wind around a building or structure, and openings being formed on the perimeter which then permit flow through the building. Buoyancy-driven ventilation occurs as a result of the directional buoyancy force that results from temperature differences between the interior and exterior.[114]

Since the internal heat gains which create temperature differences between the interior and exterior are created by natural processes, including the heat from people, and wind effects are variable, naturally ventilated buildings are sometimes called "breathing buildings".

Passive cooling

[edit]
 
A traditional Iranian solar cooling design using a wind tower

Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no energy consumption.[115][116] This approach works either by preventing heat from entering the interior (heat gain prevention) or by removing heat from the building (natural cooling).[117]

Natural cooling utilizes on-site energy, available from the natural environment, combined with the architectural design of building components (e.g. building envelope), rather than mechanical systems to dissipate heat.[118] Therefore, natural cooling depends not only on the architectural design of the building but on how the site's natural resources are used as heat sinks (i.e. everything that absorbs or dissipates heat). Examples of on-site heat sinks are the upper atmosphere (night sky), the outdoor air (wind), and the earth/soil.

Passive cooling is an important tool for design of buildings for climate change adaptation – reducing dependency on energy-intensive air conditioning in warming environments.[119][120]
A pair of short windcatchers (malqaf) used in traditional architecture; wind is forced down on the windward side and leaves on the leeward side (cross-ventilation). In the absence of wind, the circulation can be driven with evaporative cooling in the inlet (which is also designed to catch dust). In the center, a shuksheika (roof lantern vent), used to shade the qa'a below while allowing hot air rise out of it (stack effect).[11]

Daytime radiative cooling

[edit]
Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces are high in solar reflectance and heat emittance, cooling with zero energy use or pollution.[121]

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces reflect incoming solar radiation and heat back into outer space through the infrared window for cooling during the daytime. Daytime radiative cooling became possible with the ability to suppress solar heating using photonic structures, which emerged through a study by Raman et al. (2014).[122] PDRCs can come in a variety of forms, including paint coatings and films, that are designed to be high in solar reflectance and thermal emittance.[121][123]

PDRC applications on building roofs and envelopes have demonstrated significant decreases in energy consumption and costs.[123] In suburban single-family residential areas, PDRC application on roofs can potentially lower energy costs by 26% to 46%.[124] PDRCs are predicted to show a market size of ~$27 billion for indoor space cooling by 2025 and have undergone a surge in research and development since the 2010s.[125][126]

Fans

[edit]

Hand fans have existed since prehistory. Large human-powered fans built into buildings include the punkah.

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor Ding Huan of the Han dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered by prisoners.[127]: 99, 151, 233  In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song dynasty (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[127]: 134, 151 

Thermal buffering

[edit]

In areas that are cold at night or in winter, heat storage is used. Heat may be stored in earth or masonry; air is drawn past the masonry to heat or cool it.[13]

In areas that are below freezing at night in winter, snow and ice can be collected and stored in ice houses for later use in cooling.[13] This technique is over 3,700 years old in the Middle East.[128] Harvesting outdoor ice during winter and transporting and storing for use in summer was practiced by wealthy Europeans in the early 1600s,[15] and became popular in Europe and the Americas towards the end of the 1600s.[129] This practice was replaced by mechanical compression-cycle icemakers.

Evaporative cooling

[edit]
An evaporative cooler

In dry, hot climates, the evaporative cooling effect may be used by placing water at the air intake, such that the draft draws air over water and then into the house. For this reason, it is sometimes said that the fountain, in the architecture of hot, arid climates, is like the fireplace in the architecture of cold climates.[11] Evaporative cooling also makes the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.[130]

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[131]

See also

[edit]
  • Air filter
  • Air purifier
  • Cleanroom
  • Crankcase heater
  • Energy recovery ventilation
  • Indoor air quality
  • Particulates

References

[edit]
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[edit]
  • U.S. patent 808,897 Carrier's original patent
  • U.S. patent 1,172,429
  • U.S. patent 2,363,294
  • Scientific American, "Artificial Cold", 28 August 1880, p. 138
  • Scientific American, "The Presidential Cold Air Machine", 6 August 1881, p. 84

 

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Driving Directions in Jefferson County


Driving Directions From Gravois Bluffs Plaza to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From GameStop to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Fenton Sew and Vac to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Trade N Games to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Barnes & Noble to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Rockford Park to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Gardens of Jefferson County to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Jefferson County Convention & Visitors Bureau to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Jefferson County Museum to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Rockford Park to Royal Supply Inc
Driving Directions From Jefferson County Area Tourism Council to Royal Supply Inc

Reviews for Royal Supply Inc


Royal Supply Inc

Ae Webb

(5)

Royal installed a new furnace and air conditioner just before we got our used mobile home. Recently, the furnace stopped lighting. Jared (sp?) made THREE trips to get it back to good. He was so gracious and kind. Fortunately for us it was still under warranty. BTW, those three trips were from Fenton, Missouri to Belleville, Illinois! Thanks again, Jared!

Royal Supply Inc

Gidget McCarthy

(5)

Very knowledgeable, friendly, helpful and don't make you feel like you're inconveniencing them. They seem willing to take all the time you need. As if you're the only thing they have to do that day. The store is clean, organized and not cluttered, symmetrical at that. Cuz I'm even and symmetricals biggest fan. It was a pleasure doing business with them and their prices are definitely reasonable. So, I'll be doing business with them in the future no doubt.

Royal Supply Inc

Terry Self

(1)

Horrible workmanship, horrible customer service, don't show up when they say they are. Ghosted. Was supposed to come back on Monday, no call no show. Called Tuesday and Wednesday, left messages both days. Nothing. Kinked my line, crooked to the pad and house, didn't put disconnect back on, left the trash.....

Royal Supply Inc

bill slayton

(1)

Went to get a deadbolt what they had was one I was told I'd have take it apart to lengthen and I said I wasn't buying something new and have to work on it. Thing of it is I didn't know if it was so that it could be lengthened said I didn't wanna buy something new I had to work on just to fit my door. He got all mad and slung the whole box with part across the room. A real business man. I guess the owner approves of his employees doing as such.

Royal Supply Inc

Toney Dunaway

(5)

This is another amazing place where we will do much more business. They are not tyrannical about the totally useless face diapers, they have a great selection of stock, they have very knowledgeable staff, very friendly staff. We got the plumbing items we really needed and will be getting more plumbing items. They also have central units, thermostats, caulking, sealants, doors, seems everything you need for a mobile home. We've found a local treasure and will be bringing much more business. Their store is clean and tidy as well!

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Frequently Asked Questions

Uneven heating and cooling can be caused by poor insulation, air leaks, undersized or improperly installed HVAC systems, blocked vents, or lack of zoning controls.
Improve insulation by sealing gaps around windows and doors, adding weather stripping, upgrading wall insulation if possible, and ensuring attic spaces are properly insulated.
Yes, features like multi-zone systems allow for independent temperature control in different areas. Additionally, using programmable thermostats can help regulate temperatures effectively.
Yes, adjusting vent positions to direct airflow more efficiently into under-conditioned areas can help. Make sure vents are unobstructed and clean to ensure optimal airflow.
Yes, using ceiling fans or portable fans can aid in circulating air evenly throughout the space, helping to maintain consistent temperatures across different rooms.